10 A MERCIFUL HAND But I say unto you which hear, Love your enemies, do good to them which hate you, Bless them that curse you, and pray for them which despitefully use you. And unto him that smiteth thee on the one cheek offer also the other; and him that taketh away thy cloke forbid not to take thy coat also. Give to every man that asketh of thee; and of him that taketh away thy goods ask them not again. And as ye would that men should do to you, do ye also to them likewise. For if ye love them which love you, what thank have ye? for sinners also love those that love them. And if ye do good to them which do good to you, what thank have ye? for sinners also do even the same. And if ye lend to them of whom ye hope to receive, what thank have ye? for sinners also lend to sinners, to receive as much again. But love ye your enemies, and do good, and lend, hoping for nothing again; and your reward shall be great, and ye shall be the children of the Highest: for he is kind unto the unthankful and to the evil. Be ye therefore merciful, as your Father also is merciful (Luke 6:27-36).
The theocentric principle that undergirds these laws is stated explicitly: God "is kind unto the unthankful and to the evil. Be ye therefore merciful, as your Father also is merciful" (v. 36). This could not be any clearer. What is not clear is the range of this passage's application.
These are very difficult words for us to believe. They are even more difficult to apply. They seem to oppose common sense. Are we to allow our enemies to impoverish us through a never-ending series of loans to them that they never repay?
Coercion and Cooperation Jesus was speaking to politically oppressed people. The Romans were in control over Israel. Israel had been politically oppressed by foreigners ever since the Assyrian and Babylonian captivities. Israelites had long lived in empires that did not have their best interests at heart.
Politics means power. There were Jewish rulers who were low-level enforcers of Roman power, but the typical Jew was outside of the power structure. He was on the receiving end of political power. So, he was in a position of weakness. What is the proper response in such a situation? Jesus here described a plan of action: give away more than you expect to get.
The parallel passage in Matthew mentions the Mosaic Covenant's legal principle of lex talionis: an eye for an eye (Ex. 21:24).(1) "Ye have heard that it hath been said, An eye for an eye, and a tooth for a tooth: But I say unto you, That ye resist not evil: but whosoever shall smite thee on thy right cheek, turn to him the other also. And if any man will sue thee at the law, and take away thy coat, let him have thy cloke also. And whosoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go with him twain. Give to him that asketh thee, and from him that would borrow of thee turn not thou away" (Matt. 5:38-42). The context of the passage in Matthew is more clearly politics and civil law. Here, I reprint my comments on the Matthew passage.(2)
* * * * * * * * * * * * These rules require the covenant-keeper to subordinate himself meekly to covenant-breakers. The proper response to injustice, Jesus said here, is acceptance. The victim of injustice must not only accept it, he must open himself to greater injustice. He must bear the cost of injustice and then offer an additional payment. He must submit to tyranny.
Tyranny should be understood in its covenantal and historical context. Jesus was speaking to a captive people. Jews in the northern kingdom had been carried away into Assyria. Jews in the southern kingdom had been carried into Babylon. Those few who returned under Medo-Persia lived under foreign rule. Their heirs lived under the Macedonian Empire, which fell to Rome. Israel had been under foreign rule for over six centuries. They had known nothing but captivity and foreign domination. They had learned to live under foreign law as a captive nation.
An Open Conspiracy(3) Jesus did not call His listeners to revolt. He called them to obedience. He did not teach revolution through power. He taught revolution through moral example. His concern was the kingdom of God. In its historical manifestation, this kingdom is one of justice and righteousness. The program to defeat tyranny is a return to personal justice and righteousness. The answer to bad civil laws begins with good personal rules. This is not the final answer, however. It is only the first step.
Tyranny is systematic. It is part of a corporate system. It becomes a way of life. Corruption spreads. This corruption eventually undermines it. What will replace it? A new tyranny? If men die in revolutionary violence or conspiracy, only to lay the foundation for a new tyranny, where is the gain? What the French Revolution launched and the Communist revolutions completed was a social experiment: violence for the sake of social cleansing,(4) and power for the sake of power.
Violence breeds violence. Conspiracy breeds more conspiracy. The kingdom of God is to be proclaimed openly. "Jesus answered him, I spake openly to the world; I ever taught in the synagogue, and in the temple, whither the Jews always resort; and in secret have I said nothing" (John 18:20). He spoke in parables, but He spoke openly. He did not create a secret society that was bound by a self-maledictory blood oath. He created a church that was bound by self-maledictory public signs: baptism and the Lord's Supper.
The church is an open conspiracy. Its members conspire: breathe together. They do so openly. Preaching is public. The sacraments are administered in public. Only when tyrannies place negative sanctions against these otherwise public activities are Christians called by God to go into the shadows.
What is visible is righteousness: good works. This theme appears throughout the Sermon on the Mount. Jesus called on His listeners to go the extra mile. Why? Because doing so would buy peace. Peace makes it easier for the open conspiracy to enlist new adherents. Paul wrote: "I exhort therefore, that, first of all, supplications, prayers, intercessions, and giving of thanks, be made for all men; For kings, and for all that are in authority; that we may lead a quiet and peaceable life in all godliness and honesty. For this is good and acceptable in the sight of God our Saviour; Who will have all men to be saved, and to come unto the knowledge of the truth" (I Tim. 2:1-4).
Turning the Cheek "And unto him that smiteth thee on the one cheek offer also the other; and him that taketh away thy cloke forbid not to take thy coat also" (Luke 6:29). This, on the face of it, seems to be a rejection of the lex talionis: eye for eye. Eye for eye means that the punishment should fit the crime. This principle of justice undergirds civil sanctions in the Mosaic Covenant.(5) Was Jesus rejecting the Mosaic Covenant? Hardly: "Think not that I am come to destroy the law, or the prophets: I am not come to destroy, but to fulfil. For verily I say unto you, Till heaven and earth pass, one jot or one tittle shall in no wise pass from the law, till all be fulfilled. Whosoever therefore shall break one of these least commandments, and shall teach men so, he shall be called the least in the kingdom of heaven: but whosoever shall do and teach them, the same shall be called great in the kingdom of heaven" (Matt. 5:17-19).(6) Then why did He preface his command to turn the other cheek with "ye have heard it said"? This phrase usually appears as His preface to a rejection of a traditional Jewish law which was not supported by the Mosaic law.
The context was civil power. The person who would strike one of Jesus' listeners was a man in authority or who had the support of the civil authority. There was nothing that the victim could do to repay, eye for eye, without resorting to private justice, which is injustice.(7) God had placed His covenant people under foreign rule for many centuries. This subordination was no temporary affliction. It was a way of life. Their fathers had sinned against God's law for so long that He never again allowed Israel to run its own political affairs.
Jesus warned "that ye resist not evil." Yet we read elsewhere: "Submit yourselves therefore to God. Resist the devil, and he will flee from you" (James 4:7). The devil is the very incarnation of evil. Why, then, did Jesus say not to resist evil? Because evil in this context was the evil of political tyranny. It was God's judgment on His people that they had been forced to live under a series of legal systems not based on biblical law. Such a civil condition is a mark of God's negative sanctions against a nation. Jesus told them to put up with tyranny for the time being. He told them to go the extra mile.
Something Extra But what of the cloak? "And unto him that smiteth thee on the one cheek offer also the other; and him that taketh away thy cloke forbid not to take thy coat also" (v. 29). The context in Matthew's version is clear: civil law. "And if any man will sue thee at the law, and take away thy coat, let him have thy cloke also" (Matt. 5:40). The man was not a common thief. He had the force of law behind him. He had proven this. He had won the case. He had won the coat. What was the proper response? Offer him more.
Why? Because a free man can usually earn another cloak. A man in prison cannot. If the victorious plaintiff decided to sue again, the victim would probably lose. The strategy here is to give the litigious man something extra. Let him sue somebody else. The man may enjoy going to court. For most people, going to court is a traumatic, expensive experience. When you have been oppressed by a man who is allied with the authorities, it is wise to stay out of court. The strategy here is to buy him off, the same way Jacob bought off Esau when he sought to return to Canaan through Esau's land: give him gifts he did not deserve (Gen. 32).(8)
"And whosoever shall compel thee to go a mile, go with him twain" (Matt. 5:41). The same principle applies in this example. The victim is operating under compulsion. He is not a free man. Go the extra mile. Heap coals of fire on his head (Rom. 12:20). This is a generally safe tactic to use against the enemy. But it has short-run costs. You pay extra now to avoid trouble in the future. You reduce future costs by incurring present costs.
"Give to him that asketh thee, and from him that would borrow of thee turn not thou away" (Matt. 5:42). Here is another example of giving something extra. Normally, this verse would lead to bankruptcy. If a person who has capital gives away money to everyone would like to borrow, he will soon have no capital. The offer of free money will be accepted by most people. Why would Jesus recommend stripping His people of their capital? Is this a permanent requirement?
This requirement must be seen within the context of tyranny. A man with political connections comes to a wealthy victim and asks for a loan. In all likelihood, he does not intend to repay it. He understands how the legal system works. It is on his side. This loan will be difficult to collect. The man with capital is to assess the power of the would-be borrower. Is this man in a position to create problems? Can he use his authority illegitimately? If so, avoid trouble: give him what he wants.
Implicit Bribes When a person gives something extra to a poor person, the gift is not a bribe. It is a gift. It is an extension of mercy. But when a person gives a gift to someone with power over him, we generally call the gift a bribe.
What is the Bible's view of bribery? That depends on whether you are a victim of tyranny or a ruler. The mark of an unrighteous ruler is his acceptance of bribes. "Judges and officers shalt thou make thee in all thy gates, which the LORD thy God giveth thee, throughout thy tribes: and they shall judge the people with just judgment. Thou shalt not wrest judgment; thou shalt not respect persons, neither take a gift: for a gift doth blind the eyes of the wise, and pervert the words of the righteous" (Deut. 16:18-19). But for the righteous man trapped in a corrupt legal system, offering a bribe is one way to gain justice. "A gift is as a precious stone in the eyes of him that hath it: whithersoever it turneth, it prospereth" (Prov. 17:8). "A man's gift maketh room for him, and bringeth him before great men" (Prov. 18:16). "A gift in secret pacifieth anger: and a reward in the bosom strong wrath" (Prov. 21:14).(9)
The Sermon on the Mount provides guidance for righteous people who are trapped in a corrupt legal order. Instead of fighting back, Jesus said, make peace. Instead of seeking vengeance, seek peace. When you are confronted with a man who has the power to take what he wants from you, offer it in advance. Honor this power by offering something extra: more than he deserves. This is the way to peace. It appears to be a costly way to peace, but in fact it is the less expensive way. It requires an extra payment in the present, but it lowers the cost of righteous living over the long run. To gain peace is a way to gain time. Time is what righteous men need to begin to construct an alternative to tyranny. It gives them time to learn the ways of righteousness and productivity. This is especially true when tyranny is increasing in both evil and power.
Accelerating Evil Economics teaches that we always discount the future. This discount is the origin of the interest rate.(10) The investor must be given a promise of more future goods in exchange for the use of his present goods. Why did Jesus tell men to give up present goods to evil-doers with power? Because evil in this context was getting worse. The evil-doer will demand more in the future -- lots more. He will demand so much more that it is wiser to gain his cooperation now. This is what happened in A.D. 66-70. The Jewish Zealots became more tyrannical, and Rome reciprocated, and then some. Old Covenant Israel was coming to an end in Jesus' day. Jesus was warning His listeners not to participate in revolutionary movements against the oppressors. Better to cooperate now and avoid destruction later.
Christians went through a year of persecution under Nero in A.D. 64. The horrifying stories of this persecution have come down to us for almost two millennia. Christians were singled out as judicially separate from the Jews, who were under special legal protection. But this legal separation by persecution was the church's deliverance. In A.D. 66, Israel revolted against Rome. The church, no longer seen by Rome as being part of Israel or Judaism, escaped destruction.(11) Now the prophesied days of vengeance on Israel had arrived.(12)
Submission can be seen as weakness or strength. If the one who submits is seen as cowardly, he invites more persecution. But if his submission is seen as a pattern of behavior based on helping the weak as well as the strong, then submission is seen as a product of a higher ethic or a higher calling. If the man lends a hand to rich and poor, strong and weak, then he is seen as not being servile but superior. The Sermon on the Mount is Jesus' most comprehensive statement of non-servile subordination. Submission to authority is not a mark of cowardice if it is part of a program of personal ethical transformation based on extending grace -- unearned gifts -- to all men. This extension of grace is exactly what the Sermon on the Mount teaches.
Revolution Through Cooperation "If thine enemy be hungry, give him bread to eat; and if he be thirsty, give him water to drink: For thou shalt heap coals of fire upon his head, and the LORD shall reward thee" (Prov. 25:21-22). This program of victory over one's enemies was articulated in the days of Solomon's rule, the period of Israel's greatest power. It is therefore a strategy for all seasons. Jesus merely articulated a variant of it. Paul placed it within the context of civil government: "Dearly beloved, avenge not yourselves, but rather give place unto wrath: for it is written, Vengeance is mine; I will repay, saith the Lord. Therefore if thine enemy hunger, feed him; if he thirst, give him drink: for in so doing thou shalt heap coals of fire on his head. Be not overcome of evil, but overcome evil with good. Let every soul be subject unto the higher powers. For there is no power but of God: the powers that be are ordained of God. Whosoever therefore resisteth the power, resisteth the ordinance of God: and they that resist shall receive to themselves damnation" (Rom. 12:19-13:2).
The individual is not to seek personal vengeance against his enemy. Surely, he is not to seek vengeance against a civil magistrate. The context of Jesus' Sermon on the Mount was a nation under foreign domination. Israel was a nation in bondage. This was why the Jews' response to His message was ludicrous: "Then said Jesus to those Jews which believed on him, If ye continue in my word, then are ye my disciples indeed; And ye shall know the truth, and the truth shall make you free. They answered him, We be Abraham's seed, and were never in bondage to any man: how sayest thou, Ye shall be made free?" (John 8:31-33). Later, the chief priests (Sadducees) were more honest: "When Pilate therefore heard that saying, he brought Jesus forth, and sat down in the judgment seat in a place that is called the Pavement, but in the Hebrew, Gabbatha. And it was the preparation of the passover, and about the sixth hour: and he saith unto the Jews, Behold your King! But they cried out, Away with him, away with him, crucify him. Pilate saith unto them, Shall I crucify your King? The chief priests answered, We have no king but Caesar" (John 19:13-15).
Then how can a man in bondage, or a nation in bondage, gain freedom? By faithfully obeying God's laws. By building up the habits of obedience to God and His revealed word. There is an old political slogan: "You can't beat something with nothing." What works best as a program of national liberation is a program of liberation from sin. Again, consider the context of Jesus' words to His followers: "They answered him, We be Abraham's seed, and were never in bondage to any man: how sayest thou, Ye shall be made free? Jesus answered them, Verily, verily, I say unto you, Whosoever committeth sin is the servant of sin" (John 8:33-34). To escape from bondage, He said, avoid sin. There can be no escape from bondage without an escape from sin. Sin is the ultimate form of bondage in history. But God's judgment against sin in eternity is the ultimate form of bondage. There is no escape from hell and the lake of fire (Luke 16:26).
Jesus' recommended program of systematic cooperation with the politically powerful is a program of heaping coals of fire on tyrannical heads. Yet it is also a program of evangelism. Men who repay evil with good do catch the attention of many people, including tyrants. There is something special about such a response to evil. Men ask: "Why?"
Good undermines evil. Evil is not self-sustaining. It is parasitical. It kills productivity. This produces weakness. Tyranny does not persist indefinitely. It recedes in the face of goodness or it collapses in a display of weakness. The collapse of the Soviet Union, 1989-1991, is the most remarkable collapse of tyranny in the history of empires. It collapsed without a fight. It was a nearly bloodless(13) abdication of what had been unprecedented political power.
The requirement of this passage is outward subordination to tyrannical authority. The message is not anti-revolutionary as such; it is anti-vengeance. This is a revolutionary strategy designed to replace tyranny with liberty, which rests on God's Bible-revealed law. The revolutionary aspects of this program are moral. The passage must be seen in the context of Israel's political subordination to Rome. It must also be seen in the context of God's program of grace. His people are to extend grace to others, just as God extended grace to them. Their outward subordination to authority -- extending more to tyrants than they deserve -- is part of a general program of grace.
This passage is not a guide for the exercise of political power. Civil authority is based upon justice: eye for eye. Victims may extend grace to criminals; the State may not.(14) The passage deals with individuals in political bondage to a State that refuses to extend justice to all. Jesus was here laying down a program of resistance to tyranny, a program based on nonviolent replacement of power. The Sermon on the Mount was a unit. This section deals with powerlessness: a way to gain victory over evil. Heap coals of fire on evil men's heads.
* * * * * * * * * * * Luke's Version The language in Luke's version of the sermon is broader than politics. It refers to enemies, not just political oppressors.
Give to every man that asketh of thee; and of him that taketh away thy goods ask them not again. And as ye would that men should do to you, do ye also to them likewise. For if ye love them which love you, what thank have ye? for sinners also love those that love them. And if ye do good to them which do good to you, what thank have ye? for sinners also do even the same. And if ye lend to them of whom ye hope to receive, what thank have ye? for sinners also lend to sinners, to receive as much again. But love ye your enemies, and do good, and lend, hoping for nothing again; and your reward shall be great, and ye shall be the children of the Highest: for he is kind unto the unthankful and to the evil. Be ye therefore merciful, as your Father also is merciful (vv. 30-36).
The general principle is to love your enemy, not merely by doing what the law requires, but going the extra mile. This applies to political enemies, including oppressors, but it applies more generally. The reason: "Be ye therefore merciful, as your Father also is merciful" (v. 36).
Mercy is always in short supply. This is because it is a free gift. There is more demand for it than the supply of it. The issue is God's kindness: "for he is kind unto the unthankful and to the evil" (v. 35b). Yet Paul placed obedience to magistrates in the context of God's kindness to all mankind in Christ: "Put them in mind to be subject to principalities and powers, to obey magistrates, to be ready to every good work, To speak evil of no man, to be no brawlers, but gentle, shewing all meekness unto all men. For we ourselves also were sometimes foolish, disobedient, deceived, serving divers lusts and pleasures, living in malice and envy, hateful, and hating one another. But after that the kindness and love of God our Saviour toward man appeared, Not by works of righteousness which we have done, but according to his mercy he saved us, by the washing of regeneration, and renewing of the Holy Ghost" (Titus 3:1-5). So, our obedience to higher authorities and our mercy go together.
The same merciful attitude is mandatory with respect to our enemies. We are to act positively toward them, not merely avoid harming them. One way to act positively is to lend. But not just lend -- lend, with nothing expected in return. "But love ye your enemies, and do good, and lend, hoping for nothing again; and your reward shall be great, and ye shall be the children of the Highest" (v. 35). This is an astounding statement. It has the sound of utopianism. How can we afford to lend, expecting nothing in return? We would soon be out of money to lend. We might even be forced by circumstances to become borrowers in a world not governed by Jesus' sentiments.
The Mosaic law announced: "The LORD shall open unto thee his good treasure, the heaven to give the rain unto thy land in his season, and to bless all the work of thine hand: and thou shalt lend unto many nations, and thou shalt not borrow" (Deut. 28:12). Becoming a lender is a means of dominion. But Jesus seems to indicate that becoming a lender is a means of charity. The lender's reward will be heavenly, not earthly. Did Jesus here repudiate the Old Covenant principle of lending?
Replacing Deuteronomy 15 Deuteronomy 15 informs covenant-keepers that they are to forgive debts in the year of release, the seventh year in the national cycle. "And this is the manner of the release: Every creditor that lendeth ought unto his neighbour shall release it; he shall not exact it of his neighbour, or of his brother; because it is called the LORD'S release. Of a foreigner thou mayest exact it again: but that which is thine with thy brother thine hand shall release; Save when there shall be no poor among you; for the LORD shall greatly bless thee in the land which the LORD thy God giveth thee for an inheritance to possess it" (Deut. 15:2-4). These loans were zero-interest charity loans. Any debtor who defaulted on a charity loan had to serve as a bondservant until the year of release. The creditor could legally sell him into bondservice to get back his money. "And if thy brother, an Hebrew man, or an Hebrew woman, be sold unto thee, and serve thee six years; then in the seventh year thou shalt let him go free from thee" (Deut. 15:12).(15)
The national year of release was annulled with the fall of Jerusalem. The charitable debt law was tied to the year of release, which was in turn tied to Israel's military conquest of the land. The land of Israel no longer is holy. So, the legal basis of Deuteronomy 15 is annulled.
Jesus replaced the old law with a new law. The indication in Luke's text is that the borrower is poor. He is in need of mercy. He is not a businessman in need of a commercial loan. In the Mosaic law, the Jew was to lend freely to a poor brother without asking an interest payment (Ex. 22:25; Lev. 25:35-37). He could lend at interest to a foreigner who did not reside permanently in the land (Deut. 23:19). But Jesus said that we are to lend without hope of any repayment at all. We are not merely granting forfeited interest as a gift; we are granting the principal, too. Jesus did not limit the list of eligible debtors to covenant-keepers. He extended it even to enemies. This means that the New Testament's standard is more rigorous than the Old Testament's.
This does not mean that we are to tell the recipient that we do not expect repayment. We are to lend without hope of repayment. That is, we are to lend to a poor person even though there is a high risk that he will not be able to repay. He should be encouraged to repay. He has a moral obligation to repay. But we should loan the asset knowing that we may not be repaid.
There will be repayment in heaven. This is difficult for most people to believe. The repayment is beyond time. A would-be lender must be extremely future-oriented for the promise of heavenly payment to motivate him to make a loan. He must value heaven's rewards above history's rewards. This takes a great deal of faith and a great deal of future-orientation.
We cannot afford to lend to everyone in need, with or without an interest payment, with or without repayment of capital. We must assess the need and the reason for the need of the borrower. We are not to subsidize evil. Lending money to a drunkard is subsidizing his addiction. But we are to manifest charity by lending even to our enemies when we know we may not be repaid. This is an exercise of faith. It is a way for us, as well as the borrower, to assess the commitment we have to Christ, His promises, and His mercy.
We are in need of mercy. So is the borrower. So, Jesus asks us to pray, "And forgive us our debts, as we forgive our debtors" (Matt. 6:12). This is a reciprocal relationship. We are shown mercy, and we are to extend mercy. Debt-forgiveness is the mark of mercy in the Lord's prayer. It is the representative sign of our position as recipients of God's grace. What we have received freely from God, we are to extend freely to men in need.
Conclusion Jesus' words are difficult to accept. They seem to place a heavy burden on His followers. His followers are to have mercy in abundance, even for their enemies. This is the evidence of their faith in God's compassion. He, too, shows mercy to His enemies, a category that once included all of the redeemed.
Lending to our enemies is a sign of mercy. Lending to them without hope of repayment is a greater act of mercy. This is what God does to us when He redeems us. Without God's grace, men are all unprofitable servants. "So likewise ye, when ye shall have done all those things which are commanded you, say, We are unprofitable servants: we have done that which was our duty to do" (Luke 17:10).(16) Christ made full payment on our behalf. We can repay only a token of what we owe apart from Christ's full payment, and even this token payment is provided by God. "Every good gift and every perfect gift is from above, and cometh down from the Father of lights, with whom is no variableness, neither shadow of turning" (James 1:17).
It is not our God-mandated task to bankrupt ourselves in unlimited lending. It is our task to provide evidence of our faith in God's promise of heavenly reward. It is also our task to provide token payments to God by making loans to impoverished enemies. We should do this, not hoping to be repaid by men. We will be repaid by God.
The context of this requirement was political oppression. This program of lending was part of a peaceful revolution that is designed to substitute God's kingdom for man's kingdoms. The goal was not to make Christians permanent slaves in history. Its goal was the opposite: to elevate them to positions of rulership. What is different about Jesus' program is the basis of such rulership. "But Jesus called them to him, and saith unto them, Ye know that they which are accounted to rule over the Gentiles exercise lordship over them; and their great ones exercise authority upon them. But so shall it not be among you: but whosoever will be great among you, shall be your minister: And whosoever of you will be the chiefest, shall be servant of all. For even the Son of man came not to be ministered unto, but to minister, and to give his life a ransom for many" (Mark 10:42-45).
Footnotes:
1. Gary North, Tools of Dominion: The Case Laws of Exodus (Tyler, Texas: Institute for Christian Economics, 1990)m, ch, 12.
2. The following section is adapted from Chapter 9 of Gary North, Priorities and Dominion: An Economic Commentary on Matthew, electronic edition (Tyler, Texas: Institute for Christian Economics, 2000).
3. The phrase is from H. G. Wells, The Open Conspiracy: Blue Prints for a World Revolution (New York: Doubleday, Doran, 1928).
4. Gary North, Marx's Religion of Revolution: Regeneration Through Chaos (Tyler, Texas: Institute for Christian Economics, [1968] 1989).
5. North, Tools of Dominion, ch. 12.
6. Greg L. Bahnsen, Theonomy in Christian Ethics (2nd ed.; Phillipsberg, New Jersey: Presbyterian and Reformed, [1977] 1984), Part 1.
7. "Dearly beloved, avenge not yourselves, but rather give place unto wrath: for it is written, Vengeance is mine; I will repay, saith the Lord" (Rom. 12:19).
8. Gary North, The Dominion Covenant: Genesis (2nd ed.; Tyler, Texas: Institute for Christian Economics, 1987), ch. 20.
9. Gary North, "In Defense of Biblical Bribery," in R. J. Rushdoony, The Institutes of Biblical Law (Nutley, New Jersey: Craig Press, 1973), Appendix.
10. Ludwig von Mises, Human Action: A Treatise on Economics (New Haven, Connecticut: Yale University Press, 1949), ch. 19.
11. Carsten Peter Thiede and Matthew D'Ancona, Eyewitness to Jesus (New York: Doubleday, 1996), pp. 48-51.
12. David Chilton, The Days of Vengeance: An Exposition of the Book of Revelation (Ft. Worth, Texas: Dominion Press, 1987).
13. Three men died.
14. Gary North, Victim's Rights: The Biblical View of Civil Justice (Tyler, Texas: Institute for Christian Economics, 1990).
15. Gary North, Inheritance and Dominion: An Economic Commentary on Deuteronomy, electronic edition (Tyler, Texas: Institute for Christian Economics, 1999), ch. 35.
16. Chapter 40, below.
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